MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS REVIEW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Promoting COMMUNICATIONS REVIEW - Essay Example Out of nowhere, global promoting is an essential expertise and information for an organization to have. By methods for the quick movement of data innovation, as we as a whole know, the separation nearly doesn't exist any longer. Every single intercontinental organization need to grow worldwide showcasing methodologies. thus, to comprehend universal promoting improved, a point by point comprehension of the an assortment of stages that a business experiences to transform into an intercontinental business is required. Essentially, there are 4 phases that a business goes during before it at long last turns into an intercontinental business. These 4 phases are Domestic, International, Multinational and universal. The fifth stage might be named as Transnational. In the residential phase of a business, the main objective market of the business exists in the nation of origin. It very well may be said that the entire vision of the world for the organization is restricted to the nation of origin. In this phase of development the direction of the business is ethnocentric. The 21st century has made the restorative medical procedure business truly gainful. Almost certainly, TV unscripted TV dramas have reworked the procedure by focusing on day by day individuals and promoting it as an adjustment or a fresh start sort of understanding. Restorative occasions can be careful and non-careful. Careful strategies involve facelifts and liposuction, and are acted in a specialist's office-based capacity, an outpatient medical procedure place, or an emergency clinic. It's normally done on an outpatient premise, yet a couple of specialists may hospitalize patients for a day when utilizing generally useful sedation. Non-careful occasions incorporate Botox infusions just as Laser Resurfacing, commonly acted in a specialist's work environment in under 60 minutes. Three significant purposes behind having a corrective procedure are changing a natural quality for example a nose work, the subsequent explanation is to travel back in time and diminish the impacts of maturin g, and in conclusion body molding for example liposuction just as a bosom lift. Another explanation would have a mutilation because of a mishap or a birth deformity. Showcasing Role Definition: Marketing is the for the most part powerful weapon possible to a business; however, promoting is much of the time befuddled by methods for deals and publicizing. It is noticed that business need to value that promoting is substantially more than that. Showcasing, truth be told, has an assortment of roltes in a firm or business; at first, it interfaces the trade with its objective market, it gives the fundamental connection among the business and its clients. Besides, as promoting focus on the necessities and requirements of clients, it provides an exchange guidance and causes it to coordinate in an evolving situation. Thirdly, it offers the data the business needs so as to adjust bearing or manage its strategies by giving most recent items or changing possible items. Fourthly, promoting assists with sorting out how a business can best utilize its assets to satisfy clients and achieve benefit targets, yet the showcasing plan can truly be viewed as the 'diagram' for a business' future achievement. The goal of this paper is to show the rising requests of corrective methodology, just as how the flexibly is being met in disparate manners than simply the specialist's office. First I will clarify the

Sexual orientation and the Environment Essay Example for Free

Sexual direction and the Environment Essay Brain science in regular day to day existence second release is an extraordinary book with bunches of incredible data. In any case, I wind up contradicting you on section four Environment and Sexual Orientation. I feel that natural components have a great deal to do with sexual direction. You posed four inquiries: is homosexuality connected with issues in a child’s relationship with guardians, does homosexuality include a dread or scorn of individuals of the other sex, is sexual start connected with levels of sex hormones, and as youngsters were numerous gay people misled? I imagine that those things including your condition can be a central factor in your sexual direction. Sexual direction is a suffering sexual fascination towards individuals from either our own or other sex. I think your condition plays probably the greatest job in your sexual appointment in light of the fact that your condition impacts what you do. As a youngster you’re youthful and naive it’s simply like monkey see, monkey do. Our folks influence our connections in light of the fact that our folks are the primary relationship we see and as a kid all that we see our folks do we copy. There for If we grow up around an equivalent sex relationship and you are accustomed to seeing that in your ordinary circumstance that is the thing that you are use to and you may feel like that’s the manner in which you need to carry on with your life. So from what you saw as a kid caused you to decide to be in an equivalent sex relationship. I likewise feel that the sort of connections that you have with your folks additionally influences our sexuality. The relationship with your folks is one of the most impact connections that you have in your life so it can particularly have a positive or a negative impact on you. For instance you growing up having a terrible relationship with your father may leave the feeling that all men are hounds. That may make you float away from the other gender. A male could have an unpleasant relationship with his mom leaving a terrible impression of lady making him have ell sentiments towards ladies since he never encountered a decent connection with his mother. I think there are a variety of components in somebody enormous pulled in to a similar sex. Likewise somebody being defraud as a kid can make them be gay I don’t imagine that is the reason for each on however I do think it played a factor in certain people groups direction for living. Would that be the reason for everybody no not in any way however it would be for a few. Like hereditary impacts for instance, shared sexual direction is higher among indistinguishable twins than among congenial twins. There are likewise cerebrum contrasts for instance gay men’s nerve center responds as do straight women’s to the smell of sex-related hormones. Likewise the mother’s resistant framework may assume a job in the advancement of sexual direction. Another intriguing actuality is that men who have more established siblings are to some degree bound to be gay around 33% more probable for each extra more established sibling. Adjusted pre-birth hormones presentation may prompt homosexuality in people and different creatures. Additionally right gave men with a few more seasoned natural siblings are bound to be gay, perhaps because of a maternal safe framework response. Homosexuality appears to run in families gay men have more gay family members on their mother’s side than on their father’s as should be obvious yes there are many things that can go into somebody getting gay. Be that as it may, my feeling that I think your condition assumes the greatest job as it accomplishes for any other individual. Your condition shapes and moles you as an individual. It probably won't be the integral factor to what makes you gay, yet I think it assumes a major job. In the circumstance . So dependent on these discoveries I would need to differ with you I particularly accept that your condition assumes a colossal job in your sexual direction. I might want to think you for your time, and I imagine that section four has brought some awesome understanding and I have taken in a great deal. You made some very valet point’s thank you again for your knowledge.

Link Between Behavioral Inhibition and Social Anxiety

Link Between Behavioral Inhibition and Social Anxiety Social Anxiety Disorder Print Link Between Behavioral Inhibition and Social Anxiety By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Updated on February 24, 2020 Social Anxiety Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes Treatment Living With In Children Sandro Di Carlo Darsa / Getty Images Behavioral Inhibition characteristics are used to determine the potential for developing anxiety by examining  behaviors in children  like fear, shyness, or withdrawal in new or strange situations and environments.     While research on behavioral inhibition and its reliability for predicting anxiety later on in life is still in its infancy, studies completed to date suggest that this could be an important indicator that could enable earlier treatment.  Social anxiety can be an overwhelming mental illness with severe negative effects. Early identification and intervention are important to improve quality of life and to prevent other conditions like depression.   Onset of Social Anxiety While scientists have not identified the specific cause of anxiety disorders like social anxiety disorder (SAD), many believe that it is linked to biological, psychological, and social factors. Many people experience severe social anxiety for years without getting appropriate treatment, either because they do not seek help or because they are inaccurately diagnosed. Untreated anxiety can result in severe depression and even suicidal behaviors, so it is important to get help as early as possible. If your child is having suicidal thoughts, contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or your loved one are in immediate danger, call 911. For many, social anxiety begins in the teens and into young adulthood. By identifying people at an early age and giving them the opportunity for effective treatment options, the severity of social anxiety can be minimized. Behavioral Inhibition is an important aspect of childhood as it may be an early indicator of anxiety disorders and valuable for obtaining an appropriate diagnosis. Behavioral Inhibition and Social Anxiety A growing body of research indicates a connection between childhood personality styles and developing social anxiety later in life. Behavioral inhibition is a personality type that shows a tendency toward distress and nervousness in new situations. Behavioral inhibition in children includes shyness around unfamiliar people and withdrawal from new places. Early behavioral inhibition is not a guarantee of developing anxiety later on. As children grow older, many learn to respond to new situations and new people in a more rational way. However, others will continue to show anxious behaviors throughout their lives and into adulthood. Some research has started to examine how to decrease behavioral inhibition to minimize social anxiety. Caregiving strategies such as those that encourage independence, confidence, and resourcefulness in children may help overcome behavioral inhibition later on.Providing children with exposure to new social situations and activities can help them build their own social skills.Overprotective caregiving, such as giving help when it is not necessary, can increase behavioral inhibition and may reinforce anxiety in new situations. The limited research available suggests that the best way to encourage a child to be confident and not anxious is to encourage him or her to be independent and give him or her the opportunity to problem-solve for himself or herself. This may build a foundation on which the child does not need to rely on others in social situations, lessening the chances of social anxiety developing later on. Through the study of behavioral inhibition and social anxiety, therapists can intervene early  to prevent anxiety from worsening to the point of inhibiting daily activities. A Word From Verywell If your child is displaying behavioral inhibition, this is not necessarily a sign of social anxiety disorder. However, it is important to monitor your childs behavior to see if it worsens. As a parent, be sure to give your child lots of opportunities to problem solve before you jump to the rescue. As your childs confidence grows, you may notice that behavioral inhibition is lessened. If behavioral inhibition seems to grow rather than lessen over time, it may be helpful to talk with your doctor about your childs behavior. At that point, you may discuss whether an assessment for anxiety is warranted and if intervention might be appropriate. Remember that early intervention is key to managing anxiety, so dont feel discouraged if your child is given a diagnosis. It is better to identify a problem at an early age before it grows into something more unmanageable during the teen years.

Was Archaeopteryx a Bird or a Dinosaur

On the face of it, Archaeopteryx wasnt much different from any other feathered dinosaur of the Mesozoic Era: a small, sharp-toothed, two-legged, barely airworthy dino-bird that feasted on bugs and small lizards. Thanks to a conflux of historical circumstance, though, for the last century or so Archaeopteryx has persisted in the public imagination as the first true bird, even though this creature retained some distinctly reptilian characteristics--and almost certainly wasnt directly ancestral to any bird living today. (See also 10 Facts About Archaeopteryx and How Did Feathered Dinosaurs Learn to Fly?) Archaeopteryx Was Discovered Too Early to Be Fully Understood Every now and then, a fossil discovery hits the zeitgeist--that is, contemporary trends in prevailing thought--square on the head. That was the case with Archaeopteryx, the exquisitely preserved remains of which were unearthed barely two years after Charles Darwin published his masterwork, On The Origin of Species, in the mid-19th century. Simply put, evolution was in the air, and the 150-million-year-old Archaeopteryx specimens discovered in Germanys Solnhofen fossil beds appeared to capture the precise moment in the history of life when the very first birds evolved. The trouble is, all of this happened in the early 1860s, well before paleontology (or biology, for that matter) had become a fully modern science. At that time, only a handful of dinosaurs had been discovered, so there was limited scope for understanding and interpreting Archaeopteryx; for example, the vast Liaoning fossil beds in China, which have yielded numerous feathered dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous period, had yet to be excavated. None of this would have affected Archaeopteryxs standing as the first dino-bird, but it at least would have put this discovery in its proper context. Let's Weigh the Evidence: Was Archaeopteryx a Dinosaur or a Bird? Archaeopteryx is known in such detail, thanks to the dozen or so anatomically perfect Solnhofen fossils, that it offers a wealth of talking points when it comes to deciding if this creature was a dinosaur or a bird. Heres the evidence in favor of the bird interpretation: Size. Archaeopteryx adults weighed one or two pounds, max, about the size of a well-fed modern-day pigeon--and much less than the average meat-eating dinosaur. Feathers. Theres no doubt that Archaeopteryx was covered with feathers, and these feathers were structurally very similar (though not identical) to those of modern birds. Head and beak. The long, narrow, tapered head and beak of Archaeopteryx were also reminiscent of modern birds (though bear in mind that such similarities may be the result of convergent evolution). Now, the evidence in favor of the dinosaur interpretation: Tail. Archaeopteryx possessed a long, bony tail, a feature common to contemporary theropod dinosaurs but not seen in any birds, either extant or prehistoric. Teeth. Like its tail, the teeth of Archaeopteryx were similar to those of small, meat-eating dinosaurs. (Some later birds, like the Miocene Osteodontornis, did evolve tooth-like structures, but not true teeth.) Wing structure. A recent study of Archaeopteryx feathers and wings suggests that this animal was incapable of active, powered flight. (Of course, many modern birds, like penguins and chickens, cant fly either!) Some of the evidence vis-a-vis the classification of Archaeopteryx is much more ambiguous. For example, a recent study concludes that Archaeopteryx hatchlings required three years to attain adult size, a virtual eternity in the bird kingdom. What this implies is that the metabolism of Archaeopteryx wasnt classically warm-blooded; the trouble is, meat-eating dinosaurs as a whole were almost certainly endothermic, and modern birds are, as well. Make of this evidence what you will! Archaeopteryx Is Best Classified as a Transitional Form Given the evidence listed above, the most reasonable conclusion is that Archaeopteryx was a transitional form between early theropod dinosaurs and true birds (the popular term is  missing link, but a genus represented by a dozen intact fossils can hardly be classified as missing!) Even this seemingly uncontroversial theory is not without its pitfalls, however. The trouble is that Archaeopteryx lived 150 million years ago, during the late Jurassic period, whereas the dino-birds that almost certainly evolved into modern birds lived tens of millions of years later, during the early-to-late Cretaceous period. What are we to make of this? Well, evolution has a way of repeating its tricks--so its possible that populations of dinosaurs evolved into birds not once, but two or three times during the Mesozoic Era, and only one of these branches (presumably the last) persisted into our era and gave rise to modern birds. For example, we can identify at least one dead end in bird evolution: Microraptor, a mysterious, four-winged, feathered theropod that lived in early Cretaceous Asia. Since there are no four-winged birds alive today, it seems that Microraptor was an evolutionary experiment that--if youll forgive the pun--never quite took off!

Genetically Modified Food Essay example - 1041 Words

Genetically Modified Foods. Everywhere where you go, there are fast food companies advertising their products. You take a road trip to your familys house, and what do you see? Rest stops filled with fast food restaurants. According to Google maps, there are close to 50,000 fast food chains across the United States. (with Mcdonalds being the largest restaurant chain.) Fast food companies go above and beyond to lure you to buy their products. But what exactly is in their food? Not many people look into that. All theyre looking for is a quick fix and convenient food. But, what is this food doing to your body? How do you know what youre†¦show more content†¦Most cattle today are being fed genetically modified corn, thanks to the Monsanto Corporation. Monsanto Corporation has been feeding the world with its genetically engineered food crops for many years. In 2001, Monsantos genetically modified crops accounted for 91% of the total area of genitcally modified crops planted worldwide. This resulted in Monsanto suing good farmers for copyright infringement. Monsantos crops would spread to neighborhood crops, and contaminate their vegetables When farmers purchase a patented seed variety, they sign an agreement that they will not save and replant seeds produced from the seed they buy from Monsanto. They CANNOT outline the rules of use, for example, they are not allowed to save any of the seed from their crop to plant the next season. Saving seed is a common practice used for thousands of years, but Monsanto forbids it, requiring farmers to buy new seeds from the company every year. This moves on to farmers feeding their cattle genetically engineered maize. In factory farms in eastern Colorado, genetically m odified corn grows next to the confined animal pens. Its DNA-altered pollen is blown over the stockyards, adding further to the contamination of theShow MoreRelatedGenetically Foods : Genetically Modified Foods1239 Words   |  5 PagesGenetically Modified Foods â€Å"70 percent of our corn farmland and 93 percent of soy farmland are planted with crops genetically engineered to resist pests and herbicides and increase crop yields. 60% of all the processed foods in the United States are genetically modified; a shocking statistic has the concern of many Americans. However, most people are uninformed about the beneficial impact that genetically modified food has on their diet. GM is the use of molecular biology technology to modify theRead MoreGenetically Modified Food : Modified Foods1165 Words   |  5 PagesCheenne 09/21/2014 Genetically Modified Food Accompany the growing population in the world and food shortages, in order to alleviate the immediate crisis, transgenic technology began to be used in the field of food production. Genetic engineering technology as a young technology, which gives us a lot of genetically modified food and gained unprecedented gains. But science is a double-edged sword. People are concern the topic about that whether genetically modified foods is safety. It is evidentlyRead MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Food947 Words   |  4 PagesAs genetically modified food appeared into people’s consciousness, it had been at the center of vehement controversy. Because people lack information about genetically modified food’s potential influence, they wonder whether genetically modified food is a miracle or not. Genetically modified food can solve several problems. The potential effects of genetically modified food also should be measured. However, people should not assume that genetic ally modified food only has disadvantages, but understandRead MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Foods822 Words   |  4 PagesGenetically Modified Foods What is it that we are eating? GMO’s are unnatural. Is it healthy to eat something that doesn’t belong in our digestive system? GMO’s are genetically modified food. Genetically modified foods are created by taking genes from plants and animals and inserting into our food to alter the genetic engineering. In 1984, GMO’s were first introduced when a plant was modified from antibiotic resistant tobacco. In 1994, genetically modifying food was approved by the FDA and theRead MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Foods1979 Words   |  8 Pages Genetically modified organisms are plants and animals that have been biologically engineered with the DNA of other plants, animals, bacteria, etc. Such modifications and combinations cannot occur in nature through crossbreeding or by other organic means. While commonplace in the vast majority of our marketplace, the information and nature of genetically modified foods is not as common. Information is, in fact, available on these genetically modified products, but they have to be sought out. TheRead MoreGenetically Modified Foods1101 Words   |  4 Pages Ever wondered what has been put into everyday food and what the impact is on human health? Approximately 60-80 % of everyday food has one ingredient made from genetically modified foods. When hearing â€Å"genetically modified food† people automatically think it is only bad for health, but there is also a good impact surprisingly. The one bad thing is that people do not know what types food have been modified because the re are no labels for GMO products. Even though GMOs have a bad impact on humanRead MoreWhat Are Genetically Modified Foods?1236 Words   |  5 PagesWhat are genetically-modified foods? The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modified organisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plants created for human or animal consumption using the latest molecular biology techniques. These plants have been modified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such as increased resistance to herbicides or improved nutritional content. The enhancement of desired traits has traditionally been undertaken through breeding, but conventional plant breeding methodsRead MoreGenetically Modified Foods1787 Words   |  7 PagesPart 1 Genetically Modified Food ‘With genetically modified foods I believe we have reached the thin edge of the wedge, we are messing with the building blocks of life and its scary’ - Malcom Walker, Chairman and Chief Executive of Iceland Foods (Quotes from Scientists). Genetically modified organisms or GMOs are plants or animals made by splicing the gene and inserting DNA from different species of plants, animals, bacteria, and viruses. These genes would not naturally result in a cross breed.Read MoreGenetically Modified Food1213 Words   |  5 PagesThis report evaluate about the genetically modified food that why we need this, what are its key issues and how we can overcome these issues? In the field of biotechnology, the vast development was observed in the last few decades comprising the manipulation of genetic material to generate animal and plants with certain desirable attributes. Genetically Modified/Manipulated Organisms frequently termed as GMOs, refer to organisms whose genetic material has been modified through recombinant DNA (rDNA)Read MoreGenetically Modified Foods1928 Words   |  8 PagesAre genetically modified foods assessed differently from traditional foods? Genetically Modified Foods (GMOs) are known to cause a swarm of controversy; a lot of experts disagree with the notion that if it’s economically successful, then the potential health risks found in Genetically Modified Foods can be overlooked. The questions someone must ask themselves is this, can the Genetically Modified Foods be helpful? Does money matter more than your health? Ask yourself these questions. But before

Save Girl Child Free Essays

Nuclear Main articles: Nuclear explosion and Effects of nuclear explosions In addition to stellar nuclear explosions, a man-made nuclear weapon is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from nuclear fission or from a combination of fission and fusion. As a result, even a nuclear weapon with a small yield is significantly more powerful than the largest conventional explosives available, with a single weapon capable of completely destroying an entire city. Properties of explosions Force Explosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. We will write a custom essay sample on Save Girl Child or any similar topic only for you Order Now If the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused to produce a greater local effect; this is known as a shaped charge. Velocity This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Pleasehelp improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (May 2013) The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction . Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow, and that of a flash capacitor like that in a camera flash, which releases its energy all at once. Evolution of heat The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies most explosive chemical reactions. The exceptions are called entropic explosives and include organic peroxides such as acetone peroxide[2] It is the rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of most explosive reactions to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. The liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example,  although a unit mass of coal yields five times as much heat as a unit mass of nitroglycerin, the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow. In fact, a substance which burns less rapidly (i.e. slowcombustion) may actually evolve more total heat than an explosive which detonates rapidly (i.e. fast combustion). In the former, slow combustion converts more of the internal energy (i.e.chemical potential) of the burning substance into heat released to the surroundings, while in the latter, fast combustion (i.e. detonation) instead converts more internal energy into work on the surroundings (i.e. less internal energy converted into heat); c.f. heat and work (thermodynamics) are equivalent forms of energy. See Heat of Combustion for a more thorough treatment of this topic. When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, heat may either be absorbed or released. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. Heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 25  °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally given in units of kilojoules per gram-molecule. A negative value indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements; such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic—that have a net liberation of heat—are of interest. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as the â€Å"heat of explosion.† Initiation of reaction A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock, heat, or a catalyst (in the case of some explosive chemical reactions) to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when needed. Fragmentation Fragmentation is the accumulation and projection of particles as the result of a high explosives detonation. Fragments could be part of a structure such as a magazine. High velocity, low angle fragments can travel hundreds or thousands of feet with enough energy to initiate other surrounding high explosive items, injure or kill personnel and damage vehicles or structures. Notable explosions How to cite Save Girl Child, Papers

Systems Life Cycle Costing Cost Management

Question: Describe about the Systems Life Cycle Costing for Cost Management? Answer: Using the FIFO method in process costing the costs incurred in the mixing department. Costs which enter the marketing department first are recorded first, which shows the FIFO method. The units are calculated: Direct Materials Conversion Costs Transferred In Units in Opening WIP 5000 liters % of completion in opening WIP in previous year % of opening WIP being completed this year Transferred units in opening WIP 3000 liters 3000 liters Units produced in January 90000 liters 1000 liters 89000 liters Units transferred in January 89000 liters 89000 liters 89000 liters Units in Closing WIP 6000 liters 6000 liters % of completion in closing WIP in this year Transferred units in closing WIP 3600 liters 3600 liters Total Units 95600 liters 95600 liters 91400 liters (Eldenburg and Wolcott, 2011) Opening WIP includes 40% of 5000 liters was completed in the prior period, which is 2000 liters. Thus, in this year the opening WIP will be 5000-2000= 3000 liters. The closing WIP includes 60% of the total closing inventory, which is 6000 liters* 60%= 3600 liters. Cost per Unit Total Costs Direct Materials Conversion Costs Opening Inventory Period Costs Total Costs Total Units 95600 liters 95600 liters Cost per unit $5 (approx) $2 (approx) (Farr, 2011) Cost Allocation Total Costs Direct Materials Conversion Costs Opening Inventory Units Produced Closing Inventory Total Allocated Cost $669,200 $478,000 $191,200 The direct material cost is calculated by multiplying the total unit with $5 and the conversion costs are calculated by multiplying the total unit with $2. The total cost allocated is $669200. This question involves the basic concept of process costing. The processing cost can be utilized to calculate the manufacturing costs of the product. In this question the manufacturing costs of the unit is calculated in context to the mixing departments. However, when the manufacturing costs of the cooking department will be done there will be some difference. It is given that no extra direct materials included in the cooking department so, the direct material will remain unchanged. The overhead costs, operations and direct labor is carried out throughout the cooking process. Thus, there will be some changes in the manufacturing costs of the cooking department (Grewal, 2011). The factors which will increase the manufacturing costs are- Direct Labor- In the cooking process, the company will require more labor to carry out the process, which will need extra labor costs. The labor costs are likely to increase the conversion costs along with the manufacturing overheads. Operations overhead- The overhead that are related to the activities, which are not directly related to the production process, is operations costs. The operations cost of the process will increase indirect cost related to the cooking department. Overhead costs- Oexpenses are likely to increase the indirect expenses, which may increase the conversion costs (Geiger, 2011). References Eldenburg, L. and Wolcott, S. (2011).Cost management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Farr, J. (2011).Systems Life Cycle Costing. Hoboken: CRC Press. Geiger, D. (2011).Cost management and control in government. [New York, N.Y.] (222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017): Business Expert Press. Grewal, S. (2011).Manufacturing process design and costing. London: Springer.

An Epitome of the Gothic Novel free essay sample

Dracula, by Bram Stoker, is quite the epitome of the gothic novel. Towards the beginning of the story, the setting takes place in an old and ominous castle, which is highly characteristic of gothic literature. Harker’s tribulation begins when â€Å"the driver was in the act of pulling up the horses in the courtyard of a vast ruined castle,† (Stoker 18). There is also a gloomy and menacing tone given to the setting of the novel, as in most pieces of gothic literature. This gloom is evident early on in the novel, as it reads, â€Å"Then a dog began to howl somewhere in a farmhouse far down the roada long, agonized wailing, as if from fear. †(Stoker 16). Also coinciding with the nature of gothic novels is the ever reoccurring supernatural events, such as Count Dracula scaling the castle walls, up-side down: â€Å"I saw the whole man slowly emerge from the window and begin to crawl down the castle wall over that dreadful abyss, face down, with his cloak spreading out around him like great wings. We will write a custom essay sample on An Epitome of the Gothic Novel or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † (Stoker 39). Another common theme of gothic novels is one of women in distress. This theme is evident throughout Dracula, as Lucy Westenra is in a constant struggle for her life for many days. â€Å"She was ghastly, chalkily pale; the red seemed to have gone even from her lips and gums, and the bones of her face stood out prominently;† (Stoker 133). In novels where there is a theme of good versus evil, there is usually a â€Å"villain† with ill intentions and a hero or heroin who tries to thwart the villain’s malevolent plans. Dracula, by Bram Stoker, is a perfect example of a â€Å"good versus evil† novel. Stoker uses the Christian characters such as Mina, Dr. Seward, Van Helsing, Harker, and others to portray the side of good in the story. Dracula and his fellow vampires are depicted as the evil characters of the gothic novel. The novel begins with the evil Count Dracula holding Harker captive, in order to attain his ultimate goal, to drink his blood. Harker states in his journal that he wishes to die rather than suffer the evil of the count’s desires: â€Å"He might kill me, but death now seemed the happier choice of evils,’ (Stoker 57). There is a constant struggle between the good and evil characters of this story to survive. As Dracula drinks the protagonists’ blood, he becomes stronger and revitalized. He is mentioned in renewed form in Mina’s journal when it states, â€Å"’I believe it is the Count, but he has grown young. My God if this be so! ’† (Stoker 187). His transformation into a younger and more powerful being depends on the carrying out of his devious plans. Lucy Westenra struggles to survive as Dracula slowly drains her life away in order to sustain his in good health. Eventually the side of good prevails as in most â€Å"good versus evil† plots, and Dracula is defeated. The death of the Count is finalized, as the novel states, â€Å"It was like a miracle, but before our very eyes, and almost in the drawing of a breathe, the whole body crumbled into dust and passed from our sight. † (Stoker 398). The entity of Dracula embodies many themes and motifs. He is a sign of pure evil, even taking the form of a devil-resembling man. Count Dracula’s features are described as devilish in the beginning of the novel: â€Å"The mouth†¦with peculiarly sharp white teeth†¦his ears were pale and at the tops extremely pointed. † (Stoker 22-23). Count Dracula also embodies sexual desire and lust. One can see his sexual side and desire being fulfilled as he forces Mina to drink his blood, resembling a different swapping of body fluids: â€Å"†¦his right hand gripped her by the back of the neck, forcing her face down on his bosom†¦a thin stream trickled down the man’s bare breast†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Stoker 300). One may even venture to say that he portrays homosexuality. The Count desires to save Jonathan Harker as his own: â€Å"Back, I tell you all! This man belongs to me! † (Stoker 44). He is a symbol of corruption, as he turns pure women into shameless, sexually hungry harlots. Lucy’s transformation by Dracula into one of these creatures is portrayed by the words of Dr. Seward as he states, â€Å"The sweetness was turned to adamantine, heartless cruelty, and the purity to voluptuous wantonness. † (Stoker 226). Lastly, Dracula embodies a symbol of great and overwhelming power. Dracula proclaims his own might as he declares, â€Å"My revenge is just begun! I spread it over centuries, and time is on my side. Your girls that you all love are mine already; and through them you and others shall yet be mine my creatures, to do my bidding and to be my jackals when I want to feed. Count Dracula has a profound effect on all the characters in the work of literature. Jonathan Harker’s true determine and courage is brought about to prove that he is more than just a mere solicitor when he is faced with the troubling dilemma of being trapped in a vampire’s castle. His testament that he will escape may be observed in his journal as so: â€Å" I shall not remain alone with them; I shall try to scale the castle wall farther than I have yet attempted. I shall take some of the gold with me, lest I want it later. I may find a way from this dreadful place. † (Stoker 59). One may also observe the complete distraught the Count reeks on Harker. Mina’s diary reveals that he â€Å"raved of dreadful things,† (Stoker 116). Lucy Westenra is affected at great lengths also. Dracula causes her horrible nightmares, and transforms her dreams into â€Å"a presage of horror,† (Stoker 138). Eventually the Counts consequence is so heavy upon her that she is transformed into a vampire, â€Å"working wickedness by night,† (Stoker 230). Dr. Seward is perhaps revealed as very courageous man through the actions of Count Dracula. His dedication to help save the life of the woman he loved and could not have is commendable. His love is exposed as he journals the entry, â€Å"No man knows till he experiences it, what it is like to feel his own life-blood drawn away into the woman he loves. † (Stoker 141). When one is dealing with a book about vampires, blood is obviously going to play a key role in the story. To Dracula, the blood is his source of energy, youthfulness, and nourishment. He bites humans and sucks their blood in order to fulfill his undying thirst. The whole bed would have been drenched to a scarlet with the blood the girl must have lost (Stoker 137). This quote refers to poor Lucy after Dracula has feasted on her blood in order to sustain himself and his desires. Humans on the other hand do not need to constantly replenish their blood supply to live nor is it a form of nourishment for them. However, it is absolutely necessary for them to live. This is evident throughout the novel as Lucy struggles for her life each time Dracula drains her blood. â€Å"Young miss is bad, very bad. She wants blood, and blood she must have or die. † (Stoker 135). In the novel, blood is not only a means of life for the humans but also a sign of love. Arthur proclaims his love for Lucy as he states, â€Å"My life is hers, and I would give the last drop of blood in my body for her. † (Stoker 134). The mentally disturbed Renfield sums up the importance of blood in the novel when he proclaims, â€Å"The blood is the life! (Stoker 155). I believe Stoker chose to write Dracula by using letters and journal entries to give readers an omniscient perspective while still allowing the story to be in first person and for readers to feel a sense of empathy for the characters. One can understand and relate to the true emotions of all the characters and understand the authenticity of the story’s plot through the use of letters and diary entries. For example, readers can realize Lucy’s true feelings for her fiance when she proclaims in a letter to Mina, â€Å"But, oh, Mina, I love him; I love him; I love him! (Stoker 63). The use of journal entries also allows for readers to consume multiple perspectives of the same situation from separate characters. Stoker gives Dr. Seward and Van Helsing the important professions of being men of medicine and science. This proves to be key in the struggle to maintain Lucy’s life, as Seward and Van Helsing both use their medical expertise and intelligence to attempt to co nquer her malady. Seward is smart, but not as smart as Van helsing, who is the backbone of the life-saving effort. Van Helsing uses his medical knowledge and quickly assesses what must be done in order to save Lucy’s life by proclaiming, â€Å"There must be a transfusion of blood at once. † (Stoker 134). Van Helsing’s knowledge of science also gives him insight into the realm of the supernatural. Although science and the supernatural are polar opposites, his experience has taught him that both are equally prevalent in life. His knowledge of the upernatural can be observed as explains how to kill Dracula: â€Å"Find this great Un-dead and cut off his head and burn his heart or drive a stake through it, so that the world may rest for him. (Stoker 219). In Dracula, Christian mythology can be seen with an inverted twist. Count Dracula can be directly related to an inverted form of Christ himself, as Dracula is persecuted by those who wish to rid the world of his evil doings, and is eventually impaled, relating to the crucifixion. The drinking of blood in order to sustain the vam pires’ lives parallels inversely to that of the story of the last supper. As the vampires â€Å"must go on age after age adding new victims and multiplying the evils of the world,† they only achieve physical immortality (Stoker 230). But the story of the last supper in the New Testament teaches us to drink the â€Å"blood† of Christ in order to attain spiritual immortality and purify our souls. He who eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up in the last day (John 6:54). This subversion of Christian â€Å"myth† is important because shows the true tragedy of Dracula and the other vampires’ lives. They will never truly be fulfilled as they go on being the undead, unlike those of the Christian faith who are spiritually fulfilled by the partaking of Jesus’ blood and life. The major female characters of Dracula are Lucy Westenra and Mina Harker. These women are both noted for their innocence and intrinsic worth as women of there society. Mina is the purest and most submissive of the two, as she has only desires to serve and love her husband Jonathan. Van Helsing credits her for these attributes as he says, â€Å"She is one of Gods women, fashioned by His own hand to show us men and other women that there is a heaven where we can enter, and that its light can be here on earth. So true, so sweet, so noble, so little an egoist and that, let me tell you, is much in this age, so skeptical and selfish. †(Stoker 203). Lucy, on the other hand, has a more desirable physical appearance and has a slightly more lustful and sensual side to her. Early on in the novel she writes to Mina in a letter about the three men who have proposed to her. Her almost lustfully unattainable desire to have all of them is written in the letter: â€Å"Why cant they let a girl marry three men, or as many as want her, and save all this trouble? † (Stoker 66). Her sexual side is amplified when she becomes a vampire, as she is seen trying to seduce her fiance Arthur. She approaches him seductively and says, â€Å"Come to me, Arthur. Leave these others and come to me. My arms are hungry for you. Come, and we can rest together. Come, my husband, come! † (Stoker 227). Minas importance as one of the major storytellers through her insightful diary and Lucy’s role as the damsel in distress makes them key factors in the development of the plot in this novel. According to the novel, vampires are attracted by the blood of humans. It would seem as though the blood of the opposite gender is the most alluring, depending on the sex of the vampire. Dracula tends to hunt the female characters such as Lucy, and the three vampire women have a strong attraction to the blood of Jonathan Harker. The vampires are highly opposed to items such as a crucifix, or cloves of garlic. Lucy;s strong opposition to the crucifix can be when â€Å"Van Helsing sprang forward and held between them his little golden crucifix. She recoiled from it, and, with a suddenly distorted face, full of rage, dashed past him as if to enter the tomb. (Stoker 227). In order to permanently destroy a vampire, one must thrust a stake through its heart. â€Å"Mr. Morris’s bowie knife plunged into the heart†¦the whole body crumbled into dust and passed from our sight. † (Stoker 398). Other precautions can also be taken to ensure the vampire’s death: â€Å"I shall cut off her head and fill her mouth with garlic,† (Stoker 2 16). Dracula still remains an icon in today’s society as many shows and books such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the Twilight saga have captured the imaginations of many people. The vampire figures in the Twilight novels are similar to those in Dracula in that they are both very attractive and alluring to the human race. Physically they are very strong, and both need blood to sustain themselves. However, the vampires in Twilight can be either bad or good. The good vampires choose not to feed on the blood of humans but rather on that of animals, in order to keep other humans from experiencing the cursed life that they are damned to. Vampires in this novel are also limited to their human forms, and may not transform into bats, wolves, or any other forms.

Critical Analysis of Elizabeth I

Critical Analysis of Elizabeth I Introduction This paper presents a critical analysis of the movie â€Å"Elizabeth I â€Å"produced by Shekhar Kapur, 1998 in UK (Kapur 2005). The film is also known as â€Å"The Virgin Queen†. It is imperative to note that the movie portrays the early years and reign of Queen Elizabeth I (Kapur 2005).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Critical Analysis of Elizabeth I specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The author of this movie portrays the Queen as a character who has remarkable skills in leadership. On that note, this paper will examine how effective leadership has been portrayed in the movie. Through a careful review of literature and reflection from the movie, this paper will also seek to portray how a chosen leader should demonstrate effective leadership. A critical analysis of the movie The film â€Å"Elizabeth I† is visually interesting as it unfolds by portraying the creation of the Virgin Queen. T his makes the movie to appear more fictitious rather than one that highlights the history of Queen Elizabeth (Schumann 2012, p. 24). In the movie, the events began in 1554 during the reign of Elizabeth’s half sister. It commences by exhibiting excellent performance whereby Elizabeth is portrayed as a real woman ready to face impending challenges to establish her reign. Notably, the author develops other characters such as William Cecil and Francis who were the Queen’s main protectors (Schumann 2012, p. 30). These characters help her to struggle to power. Notably, the author of the film uses other characters to enhance historical accuracy and, to develop themes such as romance and melodrama within the scene (Kapur 2005). As the plot develops, the author portrays huge divisions that existed in the 16th century in Europe (Gillett 1999, p. 2). These divisions result due to religious differences and wealth. Therefore, Queen Elizabeth is being portrayed as a pragmatic leader due to her performance regardless of the religious and political divisions. As a ruler, she faces numerous challenges including a chronic coup plotted to overthrow her reign. It is important to note that the movie depicts dramatization of how the Queen succession took place and also captures the adventures that occurred some years after her reign (Schumann 2012, p. 34). Several years after her reign, the Catholics and Protestants were in conflict, a factor that made the Queen to be excommunicated. At this time, she allows Judaism though it was outlawed by the realm where the largest proportion of the population England was Catholics (Gillett 1999, p. 13). It is evident that the conflicts marked a turning point for the Queen where she tireless influenced the Roman Catholic leaders to allow religious settlement (Kapur 2005). From this point, one can argue that the Queen was very liberal and opposed religious prejudices.Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's s ee if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Still in the scene, the issue of marriage has been addressed. Notably, most individuals perceive it as a preoccupation for success (Schumann 2012, p. 34). In the movie, the Queen deals with numerous marriage proposals though she fall in deep dilemmas on whom to be in love with. For instance, she could not get married to a foreigner since she would end up handing over her country’s rule to the foreigner (Kapur 2005). She even feared that if she got a local lover as her husband, he might have turned into a de facto king (Gillett 1999, p. 17). Therefore, she declined the issue and kept it to herself. She claimed that she was married to England (Kapur 2005). Notably, one can deduce that the Queen is a determined public servant who is boundless dedicated to serve her country. Needless to say, the movie has its legacy on the art and flexible development of politics and religion (Schumann 2012, 40). The reign of the Queen was engulfed by tremendous changes such as rise of new social class, conformity to state and religion. Nevertheless, the Queen emerges as a complex person, an individual with high level of intelligence that scholars could regard as a ruler in post modern monarch (Schumann, 2012, 50). A critical analysis of effective leadership as portrayed in the movie Gutted (2011, p. 27) argues that effective leadership begins with self-leadership. This implies that before any leader can think of leading a thriving enterprise, he must first possess and master self-leadership skills. Subtly, self-leadership employs premeditated plans in advance to ensure that the right action takes place at the desired time. Notably, some leaders are more naturally disciplined than others (Gutted 2011, p. 27). For this reason, there are those that struggle to boost their effectiveness in order to promote their professional will. Needless to say, self-discipline refers to the ability to contro l your time, resources, thoughts and emotions in such a way that you remain focused on the targeted goal. Hence, effective leadership is crucial in enhancing that leaders achieve the desired ends (Gutted 2011, p. 28). In line with this, is imperative to note that there are numerous ways can be used to assess the effectiveness of leadership portrayed by a chosen leader. For instance, one can evaluate the cognitive abilities of a leader to determine whether they can make a good leader (DuBrin 2010, p. 71). It is evident from the movie that the Queen was an effective leader. This claim can be supported by the fact that she is able to think and act rationally for the good of her country. For instance, she stands against religious conflicts and appeal to the Catholic Bishops to allow religious freedom in England (Gillett 1999, 12). On the other hand, personality can be used to assess whether a leader is effective. It is imperative to note that a leader should be impartial yet flexible (D uBrin 2010, p. 106). For instance, the Queen is able to silence her opponents though we find that she have got advisors.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Critical Analysis of Elizabeth I specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Needless to say, an effective leader can be determined by his or her passion to perform a particular task and the flow of experience (DuBrin 2010, p. 141). Notably, one can deduce that the Queen had a passion to serve the country and had a good flow of experiences. For example, she declines getting married to both foreigners and local lovers in order to protect her country. Moreover, as the film ends, it sets a legacy on the Queens ability to safeguard the monarch to an extent that it can be considered as one of the post-modern (Gillett 1999, p. 14). That notwithstanding, the Queen demonstrates her ability to desert traditional thinking and employs creative strategies for the good of her country. Con sequently, she breaks the culture that certain religious doctrines are unacceptable in the realm. Therefore, it is arguable that she has passed the test as an effective leader. It is imperative to note that there are several attributes that one can learn from the movie on effective leadership. For instance, when considering whether leadership is effective or not, it is important to recognize who holds the power. For example, Queen Elizabeth was born in power. Moreover, during her time, the society she grew in upheld traditional values including monarch (Kapur 2005). Therefore, once she reigned into power, she modeled the impending values perfectly. In fact the film had demonstrated her ability and commitment to execute duties while upholding traditional values. It is definite that she successfully follows the rulebook with sober personality a factor that makes her to beat all odds. Succinctly, it is arguable that an effective leader should possess a sober personality (Willets 2011, p. 5). Moreover, effective leaders should have virtues that will enable them to interact with the subjects. These virtues include courage, wit, truthfulness, right ambition and good temper (DuBrin 2010, p. 173). In the movie, the queen is able to interact well with her protectors and other colleagues in parliament. After her reign to power in England she emerges as a mediavel Godfather who understands the nature of her power (Kapur 2005). She uses political machinations to bring everything in control regardless of few restrictions which engulfed her. As a leader, she finds herself trapped between religious conflicts among Protestants and Catholics (Schumann 2012, p. 30). Nevertheless through her wit and support from the council member she is able to solve impending conflicts. From this analysis if is essential that effective leaders should be gentle but hardy in order to achieve stability. This will also help them to exert authority effectively and become self-imposed. That notwiths tanding, it is essential to note that the Queen possess practical wisdom that enables her to effectively reign and enhance the wellbeing of her people regardless of challenges (Kapur 2005). Inline with this, effective leaders should have moderate temperance in order to ensure that they take reasonable risk for the good of the subjects.Advertising Looking for report on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, integrity is a virtue that builds trust and encourages people to consider ones leadership as legitimate (Willets 2011, p. 5). In line with this, it is imperative to note that virtues, values, morals are the sum total of an effective leader. Nevertheless, scholars argue that these aspects often remain elusive since cannot be defined but they can be demonstrated (Willets 2011, p. 5). In addition, it is essential to emphasize that competence and commitment are key ingredients that make a leader effective. For instance, competence determines what a leader can do. Contrastingly, commitment determines what an individual wants to do. Furthermore, combination of the two concepts influences the effectiveness of a leader. Needless to say, character or personality is also a key element and plays a central role in influencing leadership (DuBrin 2010, 202). Researchers argue that character influences what leaders reinforce, notice or value in the immediate environment (Willets 2011, p. 5). Moreover, character is crucial in making effective decisions. Research has shown that most mistakes committed by leaders have their roots on poor character development. Nevertheless, it is apparent that there is no perfect leader when it comes to character development (Pater 2011, 58). Evidence can be derived from the fact that majority of them end up making inappropriate decisions probably due to overconfidence. Some aspects in their characters bide their minds to an extent that they fail to consider important contextual variables. In this case, they are led by emotions that hijack their selfs of common traits include extroversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience (DuBrin 2010, p. 302). Notably, out of the five major domains there are other traits that are worth consideration. These include perfectionism, dominance, rigidity, impulsivity and persistence. Research has shown that all effective leaders have their own personal style of execu ting their roles in leadership (Endersbe, Wortmann Therrien 2012, p.8). Nevertheless, there are specific aspects which they share. For instance, effective leaders have commitments geared toward making their roles effective. This implies that they use the aspect to enhance teamwork, increase productivity and build cohesiveness in their respective areas. According to Endersbe, Wortmann and Therrien (2012, p. 8), commitment in effective leadership entails three components namely clarity, rhythm and stability. According to Pater (2011, p. 58), leaders hold certain values or belief which they find essential to enhance their leadership. Research has shown that such values influence decisions and individual’s behavior. Common values that act as a guidelines in the movie include harmony, equality, non-violence and freedom. It is notable that the Queen is interested and determined to see people living in harmony regardless of their individual differences. She fights against religious violence to ensure that every individual has equal chances to determine their fate without being prejudiced. Moreover, these values influence the queen’s emotion and her behavior towards numerous aspects such as religion, politics and social life as depicted in the scene (Schumann 2012, p. 25). It is notable that as a leader, there are certain times when events take place unintentionally or unexpectedly. For this reason, a leader should employ effective leadership style to deal with uncertainties (Pater 2011, 58). As a matter of fact, the movie portrays how leadership can influence people’s reactions. In the movie, the Queen represents the establishment of aspects that were perceived as dignified, old fashioned and preserved. Nevertheless, the author uses her wit to establish significant changes in the society such as Judaism that was regarded as offensive by the realm in England. In this case, the Queen emerges as a leader who represents freedom and modernization. In a shift of focus, leadership style is an important factor to consider while assessing the effectiveness of a leader. Most of the styles adopted by leaders reflect their altitudes and ability to contribute to change (Nielsen Daniels 2012, p. 383). It is imperative to note that certain styles of leadership also influence the level of motivation and commitments among leaders. In line with this, different situations require dissimilar styles of leadership in order to increase competence, productivity and the well-being of those who are being led. Notably, one of the common and most accepted styles of leadership is transformational type of leadership (Nielsen Daniels 2012, p. 383). One can argue that the Queen was a transformational leader who strived to transform her country. Additionally, an effective leader should be transformational and work towards positive change whenever deemed necessary. Research evidences have revealed that effective leaders using transformational style have high levels of commitment and motivation. Moreover, they are envisioned to elicit trust and loyalty to the subjects. This is evident from the movie whereby the Queen opts to remain a virgin to devote her loyalty to England (Schumann 2012, p. 37). Notably, by the time she was interacting with her lovers from the foreign country, she could have been influenced to change her mind. Nevertheless, she remained focused and motivated despite the fact that the men were noble and strong-willed to marry her. Another lesson that one can learn from the movie is the essence of encouraging dialogue and sharing information. An effective leader should be able to initiate dialogue and listen to constructive feedbacks from the subjects (Pace 2011, p. 64). Research has revealed that dialogue has intellectual stimulating effects and often leads to creative problem solving. From the film, the Queen is being advised by Walsingham on how to deal with her opponents. Consequently, the Queen takes ruthless ac tion to wipe out any form of opposition against her reign. He warns the queen that sometimes she should take unpalatable decisions which he refers to the â€Å"removal of head† (Schumann 2012, p. 30). In this case, the Queen does away with tedious political machinations and opt for lucrative strategies to wipe out her opponents. Nielsen and Daniels (2012, p. 383) point out that intelligence in leadership is displayed in the manner in which a leader depicts maturity in relationship skills. Intelligence emerges in the movie to be very important in leadership maturity because it aids the establishment of solutions to complex situations. Additionally, the aforementioned authors further describe intelligent leaders as those who influence others and inspire through their words, competences and actions. The article by Endersbe, Wortmann and Therrien (2012, p. 8) points out that intelligent leadership is key in modern society as it embraces core components that hold the society. Thes e include horizontal components and the vertical components. The authors of the article exemplify that the vertical element of intelligence is placeless, timeless, divine, sacred conscious and of high power. The horizontal element of intelligence embraces the understanding that leaders must be of service to human beings and everything else in the world. The best description that can be given to the leadership of Elizabeth as reflected in the movie is definitely placeless. From a careful review of literature, it is apparent that leaders’ behaviors influence the environment which they operate and the relationship they establish with their counterparts (Pace 2011, p. 65). In this case, leaders’ behavior affects effectiveness in the various roles being played. One can argue that the Queen had used classic styles of leadership behavior. This made her to be recognized as the Godfather of the medieval era. For instance, one can note that to some extent, the Queen was authorit ative though liberal. In this case, she retained her responsibility and authority. Needless to say, the fact that she was a protestant, she faced strict opposition by the Catholic nobles after ascending to power. Nevertheless, it is imperative to note that the nobles were horrified by the Queen’s reign in power to an extent that they began plotting against her (Schumann 2012, p. 44). However, the queen does not appear vulnerable but determined to hold power for good measure at all cost. In this case, the queen did not care about the magnitude of the public’s reaction to stop her opponents from ascending to power. She asserts her strength and authority to silence them. The ability of a leader to have great focus, articulate professionalism in his or her duties, and maintain high ethical orientation that generates both local and international preference act as some of the most important traits for an all time leader. Perhaps, the best description that can be used for Que en Elizabeth is that of a leader who lived well beyond her time due to her peculiar view points and leadership skills that have increasingly become the driving force to many. While the notion of democracy by most leaders has often been considered indifferent in the public realms, the depiction of high democratic ideals by Queen Elizabeth in the movie is quite moving. To rhyme with modern scholars’ consideration of Queen Elizabeth, Pace (2011, p. 64) cites her ability to maintain a clear future focus that facilitated his ability to transcend from level to another. From a leader’s perspective, Queen Elizabeth was perhaps one of the best learners, a consideration that greatly facilitated her ability to curve new leadership trends. As Schumann (2012, p. 44) indicates, situational leadership requires highly sensitive people who can relate the existing trend with the core demands in the society. A leader should be able to demonstrate the ability to assimilate change and cont inued improvement. According to Pace (2011, p. 64), leaders should be able to see and create visionary outsets that can effectively guide their subjects for the sake of sustainability. As reflected in the movie, leaders also need to express willingness to take key responsibilities. One of the greatest considerations that 21st century leaders can learn from Queen Elizabeth’s operations is her willingness and ability to take responsibilities. This was depicted by her devotion to achieve desired results for every citizen. Besides, she was persistent in search for ethics. According to ethical theories, a leader must be able to pursue what is good even when the chances of winning are very slim. Queen Elizabeth also demonstrated immense levels of cooperation and support for unity of purpose. In her leadership, she indicated that the need for cooperation and unity is very critical in achieving goals. During her leadership as presented in the movie, her roles yielded successes which were only possible through cooperation with other people. The important lesson here is that the ability of a leader is to be endowed with great focus, articulate in terms of effective leadership skills and also the ability to maintain high ethical orientation. In summing up, it is imperative to note that another classic style that makes a leader effective is the democratic aspect that enables one to delegate duties while retaining much of the authority (Rus, van Knippenberg Wisse 2010, p. 992). Research reveals that democracy in leadership promotes collective participation. According to Nahavandi (2006, p. 57), democracy in leadership fosters effective decision making skills. In most cases, this allows downward and upward flow of communication. From the movie, it is notable that the Queen had master spies who were her advisors. In this case, she could delegate certain activities to Walsingham and were done regardless of whether they were good or bad (Schumann 2012, p. 33). Neverthe less, it is important to note that past performance is likely to affect the effectiveness of the present and future leadership. In this case, an effective leader should employ traits that are likely to foster cohesiveness, responsibility and motivation (Pater 2011, 58). Case analysis table A brief explanation of the scene Leader characteristics and traits displayed in the film Internal and external environment Group member characteristics displayed Leader behavior and style The plot of the film begins by exhibiting excellent performance of Elizabeth I who is in a race to reign as a Queen in 1554. In the meantime, her half sister Mary is the current queen of England. In the scene, there are characters such as William Cecil and Francis, the Queen’s protector who assist her to ascend to power. In the meantime, there is a lot of romance and melodrama whereby suitors come to woo Elizabeth for marriage. Nevertheless, she declines the affairs for the welfare of her country, Eng land. Meanwhile, as the Queen steps into power, there emerge religious indifferences among the Catholic and Judaism dominations. Additionally, political challenges also ensue whereby some activists plot to overthrow the Queen of England. Nevertheless, the Queen beats all odds and emerge successful by putting off the political and religious insurgencies Passionate Self-confident Determined Witty Ambitious Gentle Even-tempered Competent Hardy As a woman, she is faced by inner conflicts on whether to get married or remain a virgin. In the scene, she gets into romantic relationship with numerous lovers though she declines the affairs shortly. Moreover, she feels that getting married to a foreigner is like selling her country to a stranger. In line with this, she fears that a domestic husband might turn out to be an aristocratic king. Therefore, she eventually decides to remain unmarried for the sake of her country. On the other hand, she faces numerous challenges in the political arena. Some activists plot to overthrow her government. Nevertheless, she is witty enough and her supporters help her to remain in power. The group of characters in the scene has been displayed as supportive, helpful and determined to help the Queen to have an easy time in her reigning period. For instance, Walsingham, Francis and William Cecil protect and advice the queen on matters related to power The Queen uses a pragmatic leadership style. In this case, her behavior is influenced by the nature of the case at hand. For this reason, she remains flexible and impartial. Moreover, her leadership style is situational since she takes measures depending on the nature of impending situations. Needless to say, her performance and behavior are influenced by the situations surrounding her at that time. Recommendations On analyzing the case in the film, the following is a list of recommendations that can be used to boost the level of leadership performance. One should evaluate the level of se lf-leadership in a leader. This should be determined by the nature of professional skills. One should also analyze the level of personal efficacy and discipline to determine the leader’s effectiveness. Notably, the major benchmark in the analysis determining one’s ability to control time, thought, emotions and other resources. It is also imperative to consider and analyze both the external and internal factors. In this case, one should analyze their benefits and how they are likely to influence leadership. Moreover, one should consider the source of power for any given leader. Understanding and critically analyzing the group members’ initiatives and their individual potential. Needless to say, one should identify and analyze the qualities and traits held by a particular leader. By so doing, it will give room for further improvement. One should also try to understand how certain virtues, values and morals affect leadership It is also vital to examine the professi onal will, goals and objectives of a leader. References DuBrin, J. 2010, Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills, Cengage Learning Inc., Mason. Endersbe, T. Wortmann, J. Therrien, J. 2012, ‘Three Commitments’, Leadership Excellence, Vol. 29 no 4, pp. 8-13. Gillett, K. 1999, Elizabeth: Too Much Fiction in This Historical Tale. Web. Gutted, G. 2011, ‘Great Leadership Starts with Leading an Organization of One’, Agency Sales, vol. 41 no. 11, pp. 27-29. Kapur, S. 2005, Elizabeth I. Web. Nahavandi, A. 2006, ‘The art and science of leadership’,Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Nielsen, K. Daniels, K. 2012, ‘Does shared and differentiated transformational leadership predict followers working conditions and well-being?’ Leadership Quarterly, vol. 23 no. 3, pp. 383-386. Pace, A. 2011, ‘Leading development solutions for todays leaders’, T + D, vol. 65 no.12, pp. 64-67. Pater, R. 2011, Ã¢â‚¬Ë œ12-Step Leadership’, Occupational Health Safety, vol. 80 no. 11, pp. 58-67. Rus, D., van Knippenberg, D. Wisse, B. 2010, ‘Leader power and leader self-serving behavior: The role of effective leadership beliefs and performance information’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 46 no 6, pp. 922-932. Schumann, H. 2012, ‘Elizabeth Film and History’. Web. Willets, A. 2011, ‘How you can become a better leader’, Public Relations Tactics, vol.18 no10, pp. 6-8.

Traffic Light Project Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 14750 words

Traffic Light Project - Coursework Example 3.3.14 PCB board for Trafficl Light Controller No.2 Circuit.. 32 3.3.15 Traffic Light Controller Model (view no. 1) 32 3.3.16 Traffic Light Controller Model (view no. 2) 33 3.3.17 Traffic Light Controller Model (view no. 3) 33 4.3.1 Ambulance Safety Pass Traffic Light Simulation using Quick II Program. 37 4.3.2 System Block Diagram of Ambulance Safety Pass Traffic Light Controller.. 38 4.3.3 Circuit Diagram of Ambulance Safety Pass Traffic Light Controller.. 39 4.3.4 Insertion of limiting resistor between power supply and load... 40 4.3.5 Derivation of output voltage under no load and underload conditions.. 41 4.3.6 Traffic Lights Power Supply. 42 4.3.7 Power Supply Actual Circuit. 42 4.3.8 Recommended power supply for future projects.. 43 4.3.9 Remote Control Unit to activate and deactivateAmbulance Safety Pass traffic lights 43 4.3.10 Traffic Light LEDs........... 44 4.3.11 FAB Micro Controller 44 4.3.12 Actual circuits built for Ambulance Safety Pass Traffic Light Controller. 45 4.3.13 Model of road crossing and traffic lights... 46 4.3.14 FAB AF-20 Series Micro Controller.. 50 A.1 R-S Flip Flop... 52 A.2 Timing Diagram of the R-S Flip Flop.. 53 A.3 D Type Flip Flop. 54 A.4 D Flip Flop Symbol 54 A.5 Synchronization in a D type latch 55 A.6 Master-Slave D Type Flip Flop 56 A.7 D Type Flip Flop Finite State Machine.. 56 A.8 T Type Flip Flop Finite State Machine 57 A.9 J-K Type Flip Flop Finite State Machine 57 A.10 Edge-triggered D Type Flip Flop.. 58 A.11 Edge-triggered D Type Flip Flop with Preset and Clear.. 59 LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Basic Traffic Light Controller No. 1 Light Sequence. 8 3.1 Basic Traffic Light Controller No. 2 Light Sequence. 24 4.1 Ambulance Safety Pass Light...The third type of traffic light controller is for Ambulance Safe Pass Traffic Lights to allow safe passage of ambulances in both North/ South and East/ West directions. For this type of traffic light controller, a FAB intelligent micro controller unit is used to program the desired traffic light sequence that includes the ambulance safe pass sequence. The building blocks inside Johnson decade counters, astable multi-vibrator timers and the FAB micro controller such as logic circuits, flip flops, Karnaugh maps, truth tables and Boolean expressions are also presented in the Appendix section of the report. Traffic lights are an essential part of modern life, especially with the increasing number of vehicles that coincides with the increasing number of population. Traffic lights not only regulate traffic flow in the streets but more importantly prevent the occurrence of vehicular accidents. Roads without traffic lights are unimaginable. The traffic light controller is a sequential device that needs to be designed and programmed through multiple step procedures. A proper traffic light requires accurate timing, correct cycling through the states, and responds to outside outputs such as walk signals or ambulance safe passage. The objective of this report is to design and implement traffic light controllers for a simple North/ South and East/ West road crossing as shown in figure below.

Critical Issues Review #2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Critical Issues Review #2 - Essay Example In identifying future strategy for imminent war, Clausewitz states that a determination of necessary resources will entail an examination of the political aims of both the potential warring states; the strength and nature of political aims and the abilities of government and people of both.2 It is also necessary to factor into this equation, the political sympathies of other states and the implications of war on the directly warring states as well as other states which may be affected by it, which in itself is a colossal task and thus requires flexibility in military planning and execution. Moltke;s views on war strategy were also in line with Clausewitz, in that he accepts the major role played by chance and uncertainty, and also the existence of a moral element in war which contributes towards victory. However, he differed from Clausewitz in his belief that politics and war cannot be mingled with each other; policy should not be the guiding force that influences military operations. In his view, â€Å"policy uses war for the attainment of its goals; it works decisively at the beginning and end of war† but where strategy is concerned, it â€Å"works best for the goals of policy, but in its actions is fully independent of policy.3 Thus, according to Moltke, while it is likely that policy decisions may set out the initial objectives of war, once war has been declared, political ends are to be achieved only through military means; battle becomes the single means for military and grand national strategy. Machiavelli recognizes the importance of adaptability, in view of its changing nature of war and offers the view that â€Å"he errs the least and will be most favored by fortune who suits his proceedings to the times† and illustrates this with the examples of Hannibal and Scipio.4 Machiavelli points out that the ability of

Terminator Wave Energy Devices

Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab Terminator Wave Energy Devices Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab